How forests are important to the planet

When we think of a forest we usually think of a great mass of tangled trees and vegetation growing vertically. It can be that, yet there are many other different kinds of forest and many definitions. There are also kelp forests that grow under the sea, but this article looks at the different kinds of land forests and their importance to the global ecosystem. We will look at how a forest is defined, the forest community, biodiversity and the forest economy. Then discuss the forest as a storehouse, the forest as the "Earth’s lungs" and as an ecosystem, followed by a look at the different types of forest. Finally we will conclude by looking at human understanding of the forests.

Garibaldi Provincial Park, British Columbia -
Author: TheSimkin (talk · contribs) - Public Domain

The United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization definition of a forest includes, tree plantations whose main purpose is to supply timber, or wood derived products. It does not include tree plantations grown to supply products such as fruit and coconuts for example and neither does it include agroforestry, urban parks and gardens. Areas of trees of over five hectares are included. Landscapes where there are a substantial number of small patches of forestry in the terrain and small areas of woods, or spinneys, are also included, though they are difficult to identify and monitor, yet can range over significant areas.  Read more

Rainbow Trout (Oncorhynchus mykissare)

Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykissare), members of the salmon family and are also called redband trout, or steelheads. They are native to the lakes and rivers between the Pacific Ocean and the Rocky Mountains on the North American continent.

Rainbow Trout - Knepp, Timothy - U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service - Public Domain

Fly-fishermen admire their spirit
 
They are very sought after by fly-fishermen who admire their fighting spirit finding them challenging opponents. When hooked they can leap out of the water spectacularly and perform long powerful runs attempting to break free. They can leap three or four times their body length with ease and can accelerate to a speed of 23 mph in about 1 second from a dead start.  Read more

Green eyes!

Green eyes in humans and are considered by many people to be very beautiful, very mysterious and very alluring. But why do people have different eye coloring and what is that puts the ‘green’ into green eyes?

Imagen de un ojo color verde - by propio - Public Domain

Around the world

It is known that there were humans with green eyes thousands of years ago in Siberia during the Bronze Age. Green eyes are more common in Europe and with people of European ancestry. In some European countries people with green eyes out number those with brown. Around 80% of people in Iceland have green or blue eyes. Green eyes are more often found in females than males in Iceland and this is also a worldwide trait. Green-eyed people can be found all around the world though they are generally of Germanic or Celtic descent.  Read more

The Raven (Corvus corax)

In North America, the raven (Corvus corax) is the largest passerine, or perching bird, to be found. Ravens are completely black in colour, including legs, eyes and wings. They have a wingspan of up to 4 feet and around 2 feet long from their beak to tip of their tail. Weighing around 3 pounds, they are the largest members of the crow family.
 

A Raven - National Park Service - Public Domain

Ravens are skilful fliers

Ravens are powerful and skilful fliers and know how to use the wind to soar high in the air.  They are capable of performing similar aerobatic displays as birds of prey. This behavior is seen at its most spectacular with the mating rituals of the breeding season when they execute elaborate aerial rolls, dives and sky dances in courtship. It is widely thought that ravens take a mate for life.  Read more

The Stonehenge Archer mystery

The murder of a man dubbed "The Stonehenge Archer" committed thousands of years ago has intrigued archaeologists and been a continued cause of argument and debate'  In 1978, Richard Atkinson and John G. Evans found the remains of a Bronze Age man buried in the outer ditch of Stonehenge. This burial was unusual for the Stonehenge area as most bodies are found in barrows. 

Stonehenge - by simonwakefield - CC BY 2.0

A stone wrist guard such as archers use to protect their wrists from the recoil of a bow string were found with him along with several flint arrowheads. No bow was found.  Any organic material such as wood for arrow shafts of used in a bow had rotted away. Some of the arrowheads were found in the body which suggests they had caused his death or had been incapacitated by them and then killed.  But who killed him and why?  Read more

The plight of the Scottish Wildcat

Time is running out for the Scottish wildcat, conservationists warn.  It could be extinct within a matter of months if last ditch efforts to save the rarest mammal in Britain are unsuccessful.

Scottish Wildcat - Kevin Law - CC BY-SA 2.0

 The Scottish wildcat (Felis silvestris grampia), is very similar to a domestic tabby but have a broad tail with black bands.  They are much bigger and stronger and are renowned for their ferocity and have a reputation for being untameable.

It has out lived the bear, wolf, and the lynx to become Britain’s largest wild predator.   Once virtually the whole of Britain’s mainland was the hunting ground for the wildcat but now only small, scattered populations in the remote regions of Scotland remain.  Read more

The Indigo bunting (Passerina cyanea)

The Indigo Bunting is an attractive, small seed eating bird, around 4.5-5 inches in length, with a wingspan of 8-9 inches and weighing O.4-0.6 oz. They have small conical bills that differ slightly with gender of the bird. With the adult male the lower part is light blue and the upper part dark brown to black. The bill of the female is light bluish green. Their legs and feet are grey or black.

Male Indigo Bunting - by Gareth Rasberry - CC BY-SA 3.0

In summer the plumage of the adult male is deep blue which can look black in poor light. They have black wings and tail with blue coloring around the edges.

In autumn and winter the male's plumage changes to a dun color, similar to the females, but often still retains some of their blue coloring. The adult female has a brown body with faint dark streaks on the underside and this coloration remains all year round with the female.  Read more

The Lazuli bunting (Passerina amoena)

The male Lazuli bunting is a striking bird with blue head and back with a red breast and light grey underside. Their wings are black with white bars. Immature males in their first year of age have a similar coloring to mature males but with a brownish wash.  The female has a brown, dun colored back turning to a warmer greyer coloring underneath. They look very similar to female Indigo buntings but have two pale wing bars on both wings.

Lazuli Bunting - www.naturespicsonline.com explicitly releases to public domain

 Lazuli buntings inhabit areas of shrubs and thickets in forested regions, farm hedgerows and residential gardens. They eat mostly seeds, berries, worms and insects foraging on the ground or in the branches of bushes, shrubs and trees. Males often catch flies from open perches while the female prefers doing this from lower, sheltered stations.  Read more

Clever calculating plants!

Incredible as it may seem researchers have discovered that Arabidopsis plants are actually using arithmetic calculations to ensure they have enough starch to keep them alive overnight.

Arabidopsis thaliana -
User:Roepers at nl.wikipedia - CC BY-SA 3.0

A discovery by research scientists from the John Innes Centre in Norfolk, UK , reveals that plants appear to assess the amount of starch they have available to them. They then divide it by the number of hours of darkness to make sure the correct levels are used through out the night. The researchers discovered that plants even adjust calculations to allow for variations in the hours of darkness, rationing starch to suit their needs.  Read more

The Snail kite (Rostrhamus sociabilis)

The Snail kite is a bird of prey of the same family (Accipitridae) as Old World vultures, eagles and hawks and is so named after its main food. It is also known as the Snail hawk, Black Kite, Everglade kite and Hook-billed kite.
  

Snail kite  - by Dario Sanches - Wikimedia Commons  - CC BY-SA 2.0

Scientific name

The Snail kite takes it scientific name from Latin with 'rostrum' meaning beak and 'hamus' meaning hook and because of the sociable nesting behavior of this bird 'sociabilis' is added giving it a scientific name of Rostrhamus Sociabilis.  Read more

The Gray catbird (Dumetella carolinensis)

The Gray Catbird   is often found in thickets and belongs to the genus Dumetella which in Latin means 'small thicket.' They are related to thrashers and mockingbirds and have similar vocal traits and abilities.

Gray Catbird - Matthew Petroff - CC BY 3.0-

Songs and communication

Gray Catbirds will mimic the songs of other birds and rearrange them creating their own song. Catbird's songs can last for as long as 10 minutes and different tones and notes may be used to communicate presence, lay claim to territory and attract mate  Read more

The Painted bunting (Passerina ciris)

The male Painted bunting  is often regarded as the most beautiful and spectacular of all North American songbirds. Their heads are a deep, but bright blue and their backs are green and they have a red breast and under parts. 

Male Painted Bunting - Doug Janson - CC BY-SA 3.0

 Although males are brightly colored they are difficult to spot in undergrowth as their coloring makes excellent camouflage. Females and immature males are yellowish green and green being darker on their backs than their under parts and are also well camouflaged.  Read more

The people of Stonehenge

Today it is generally agreed that the Stonehenge site was developed by three tribes in a number of phases and sub-phases over many centuries. These builders were the Windmill Hill people, followed by the Beaker people and lastly the Wessex people. Discoveries of human remains in the local area that date from the period of its building all increase our knowledge of Stonehenge life but create new unanswered questions and a few surprises

The discoveries of the burials sites of the Amesbury Archer, the Boscombe Bowmen and the Stonehenge Archer held the human remains of people who were lived at the same time as it was being worked on or in use.   This article will discuss the roles of the three different builders and the possible roles of the Amesbury Archer, the Boscombe Bowmen and the Stonehenge Archer in Stonehenge life of the time. 

Stonehenge, April, 2009 by Mactographer - Attribution

A project the size of Stonehenge would have required many different levels of management, planning, organizing and supervising when being built and after construction was finished and it was functioning as it had been planned. The workforce may have comprised of different types laborers and craftsmen.

There may well have been other tasks associated with it such as making and supplying ropes, wooden rollers, or skids. The workforce would have to have been fed and housed and the area may have undergone an economic boom thanks to Stonehenge.

The real mystery of Stonehenge is not so much the building but the people who built it. One can hardly begin to fathom the strength of faith and belief that would fortify them through each mammoth phase of the project.  Read more

Koalas (Phascolarctos cinereus)

Koalas (Phascolarctos cinereus) are tree-dwelling animals of eastern Australia, where they make their home in eucalyptus trees. Their paws have strong claws and opposable digits to help them climb and move around the trees. Koalas prefer the safety of the trees and rarely climb down to the ground. They are very sleepy creatures, usually sleeping through the day for up to  18 to 20 hours.

Female Koala - by Quartl - CC BY-SA 3.0

Diet of eucalyptus leaves

They usually wake at night to feed on their favorite food of eucalyptus leaves and will consume about 1 kg (2.5 lbs) a day. They also have cheek pouches which they can store food in.  Koalas get most of their moisture from the leaves when eating rather than drinking water.

Because they are specialized feeders their digestive system has evolved to digest the tough leaves of the eucalyptus tree. Due to the great quantities of eucalyptus leaves they eat koalas can sometimes smell like cough drops.  Read more

The Piping plover (Charadrius melodus)

The Piping plover is a small shorebird between 5-6 inches in length, or roughly the size of a sparrow. They are named after the piping sound they make when calling.
 

Piping Plover - By  Mdf - CC BY-SA 3.0

 They are a very pale sandy-grey on their backs and their undersides are white. There is a brown or black band around their neck and a black tip on their tail.  Across their foreheads is a black, or brown bar and their faces are white. They have a small, stubby, orange beak with a black tip. Their legs and feet are yellowish orange.

 During winter the Piping plover changes appearance. Their legs turn a paler shade of yellowish orange and their beak turns black. Although males and females look similar the male is larger and during the breeding season their beaks become a brighter orange  Read more

The evolution of flowering plants

One of the great mysteries of the botanical world is how flowering plants managed to evolve and disperse across the globe so quickly.  Writing in 1879, Charles Darwin called it an "abominable mystery"  but now modern genetics could provide an answer to the puzzle.  Twenty years after he wrote the groundbreaking, "The Origin of Species"  setting out his ideas on biological evolution there still remains problems that he could not find an answer to.   The mystery of how flowers evolved and spread around the world in such a relatively short span of time concerned him because it challenged his theory of gradual evolution through natural selection.  Slowly modern studies are beginning to put the pieces of the jigsaw in place beginning to reveal the story of how flowering plants evolved.

Crab apple blossom - by Malus sylvestris - CC BY-SA 3.0

Darwin’s dilemma

All flowering plants belong to a group called angiosperms.  This is a large and diverse group with plants such as lilies, cereals, grasses and gardenias for example as well shrubs, grasses, herbaceous plants and many trees.  They differ from most other plants because they produce a flower which usually contains their seeds in some form.  Read more

 

The Red-throated diver (Gavia stellata)

The Red-throated diver, also known as the Red-throated loon in North America, is located in the temperate regions of the northern hemisphere. It is an aquatic, migratory bird that has the widest range of the diver family.  Of all the diver species the Red-throated diver is the lightest and smallest. It has the typical diver characteristics of a short neck and long body and legs that are set back on the body.

Red-throated Diver and chick - David Karnå / Wikimedia Commons - CC BY 3.0

 Males and females look similar though males are usually a little larger and heavier than females. This diver during breeding has a gray head and red throat patch and the gray neck has thin black and white bars along the back.  It's under parts are white and its back and wings are black. The beak is narrow and straight.  Read more

The Lark bunting (Calamospiza Melanocorys)

The Lark bunting  is one of the most abundant of the passerine species found on the prairies of North America. With a population estimated at 27,000,000 it is one of the most numerous.
 

Lark Bunting - Author: Ryan Douglas - CC BY-SA 3.0

Lark buntings are similar to sparrows but have beaks similar to finches. The males look very striking at breeding time being black with bright white patches on their wings and a white tip to the tail.

In summer they can be located throughout the prairies of Midwest USA. They migrate for the winter to south west areas of the USA and parts of Mexico.  Read more

The Brown creeper (Certhia americana)

The Brown creeper is also known as the American tree creeper. It has a high pitched song which although can be heard makes it difficult to pinpoint and the coloration of its plumage is a masterpiece of camouflage making it a very difficult bird to detect. It has a wide distribution ranging throughout the North American continent and as far south to northern parts of Nicaragua.

 

Alan Vernon - Flickr: Brown creeper (Certhia americana) -
CC BY 2.0

Brown creeper adult birds are brown on the back and backs of their wings and very much the color of tree bark. They have white under parts and are up to 5.3 inches long. They have a long, thin downward curving bill and a long tail. The bill of the male is slightly larger than that of the female  Read more

The Black-handed spider monkey (Ateles geoffroyi)

Black handed spider monkeys live in the treetops of the rain forests in parts of Central America. With increased human activity their habitats are coming under increasing pressure and threatening their survival.

Black-handed Spider Monkey - Michael Schamis - CC BY 2.0

Sub-species

Black-handed spider monkeys are so named because they have long, thin, arms, black hands, long legs and a long prehensile tail. The monkey uses the tail like an extra limb when moving spider-like though the trees. They are also known as Geoffroy's spider monkey and their species name is Ateles geoffroyi after Etienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, the French naturalist.

There are at least 5 recognised sub-species; the Ateles geoffroyi geoffroyi (no other name), Hooded spider monkey, Ornate spider monkey, Mexican spider monkey, and the Yucatan spider monkey. There are some experts who recognise more.  Read more

Zebus (Bos Primigenius Indictus)

Zebus are believed to be the oldest domesticated breed of cattle in the world. They have a characteristic hump over their shoulders and from their throat hangs a large fold of skin called a dewlap, and have ears that are long and hanging. They are believed to have originated from the wild ox of Borneo and Java and become domesticated in South Asia.

While most zebus are grey, there are also brown, red, white, and black breeds. They are one of the smallest breeds of cattle in the world with adults standing at just over 1 metre in height.

 

Zebus in Simien Mountains National Park, Ethiopia  - Bernard Gagnon - CC BY-SA 3.0

 There are some Hindu sects who regard the white zebu as sacred and they are associated with the god Siva who used the animal as a mount, or to pull his chariot. From of this they were named Nandi and their images are placed facing the entrance to the shrine in Siva temples. Their images were found on seals of the Indus Valley civilization dating from 2700 to 1500 BCE.  Read more

The Ferruginous hawk (Buteo regalis)

The Ferruginous (fer-oo-jin-us) hawk is named after the rust (ferrous) coloration on the back and shoulders and legs which are set off by the white underside of the wings, breast and belly.
 

Ferruginous Hawk - Buteo_regalis_-California_-flying-8.jpg: Alan Vernon - 
derivative work: Snowmanradio (talk) - CC BY 2.0

Although its Latin name, Buteo regalis, means Royal hawk it is not a true hawk such as the sparrow hawk. Instead it is one of the broad-tailed hawks also known as buzzards or buteos  and  shares many similarities to the Rough-legged hawk (Buteo lagopus) including feathered legs.

With a length ranging between 20-26 inches and a wingspan of 48-60 inches and weighing  2.2-4.5 pounds it is the heaviest and largest of the Buteos of North America and only the Golden eagle, Bald eagle and  largest of female Snowy owls of the North American raptors are heavier.  Read more

The Gray jay

The Gray, or Grey jay has a breeding range that extends from northern parts of Canada and Alaska, southwards through the forests to northern California on the Pacific coast, the Rocky Mountains including parts of New Mexico and Arizona, in the Midwest, northern parts of Wisconsin, and in the east New York state.
 

Gray Jay - DickDaniels (http://carolinabirds.org/) -CC BY-SA 3.0

 Winter is the non-breeding season for these birds and their range is very much the same as their breeding range though weather conditions may force them to seek lower altitudes and they may follow food resources.

Their most common habitat is coniferous and coniferous-deciduous forests of spruce, fir, aspens and birch trees. The Gray jay has never been observed and recorded anywhere other than North America.  Read more

Siberian Tigers (Panthera tigris altaica)

Of all the tigers the Siberian is the largest and renowned for its strength and power. Siberian tigers  are also known as Amur tigers and they live mostly in remote forested parts of eastern Russia and across the border in China. 

Amur tiger - Dave Pape - Public Domain

 Habitat

Their environment is one of the coldest and harshest in the world, but it does offer some advantages for them. There are far fewer humans encroaching on their habitat and the vast forests give them more space to roam free. During the 1940s hunting had taken a huge toll and the Siberian tiger was faced with extinction with only 40 individuals left in the wild. It was saved when Russia became the first country in the world to give the tiger protection. It also greatly benefited from the Cold War, which largely closed its remote habitat to people.  Read more

The Sora (Porzana carolina)

The Sora is a small water bird and  is also called the Sora Rail, or the Sora crake and is of the family Rallidae.  It is a shy and secretive bird and its distinctive call is often heard amid the wetland marshes of its habitat but the bird is rarely seen. The Sora ranges throughout much of temperate North America having a liking for wetlands.
 

Sora - Elaine R. Wilson, www.naturespicsonline.com - CC BY-SA 2.5

 While breeding its plumage around the face and throat is black and it has a short yellow beak. The breast is grey, as is the nape and the under parts have black and white bars and the back is a dappled brown.   Read more

The Snowy plover

 The Snowy plover and the Kentish plover were once regarded as different varieties of the same species but now DNA evidence has shown that they are in fact two.
 

Western Snowy Plover - By  "Mike" Michael L. Baird - CC BY 2.0

 Dr Clemens  Küpper, from the University of Bath's Department of Biology & Biochemistry says, "Although they look similar, for them to have stayed as a single species they would have had to be able to breed with each other, but this wasn't possible because they were separated by thousands of miles of water!

For the first time we’ve shown that these birds have been separated for a long time and evolved in different directions.”  Read more

Wild Chinese giant salamanders under increasing threat

The Chinese giant salamander (Andrias davidianus) are descendants of a very ancient species that were around when dinosaurs roamed the Earth. They belong to the Cryptobranchidae family which is about 170 million years old and they remain very similar to their ancient relatives.

Range and habitat

The Chinese giant salamander is indigenous to China and was once widespread but its population has become more scattered as numbers have diminished in the wild. They inhabit rocky mountain brooks, streams and lakes showing a preference for fast running, clean water such as can be found in some of the tributaries of the Yangtze, Pearl and Yellow Rivers . They prefer forested regions around 100 to 1,500m above sea level.

Chinese Giant Salamander - H. Zell - CC BY-SA 3.0

Family dens

Several female salamanders lay their eggs in large crevices or hollows under the water. The eggs are then cared for by in these underwater dens by the males who take charge and care and protect the eggs until about one month after they have hatched into tiny tadpoles. From these tiny tadpoles Chinese giant salamanders when fully grown can measure up to 1.8 m in length and can weigh up to 50 kg. 

Critically endangered in the wild

Chinese giant salamanders can live up to 52 years of age if undisturbed, but today, few, if any achieve this. In the wild salamanders are listed by the International Union of Conservation for Nature in their Red List of Threatened Species as critically endangered.  Read more

Clever tactics of carnivorous Pitcher plants to catch prey

Plants have no brains but for an organism that lacks such a commodity some of them have evolved some remarkable ways to ensure their own survival. For example the carnivorous Raffles' Pitcher plant, (Nepenthes rafflesiana), of Borneo, named after Stamford Raffles, has been discovered employing a clever tactic to trap the ants and insects that it feeds upon.

Nepenthes rafflesiana - By Robert Jong - Public Domain

There are several species of carnivorous pitcher plants that have evolved specialized leaves that they use to trap their prey. These leaves are known as pitfall traps. These traps are cup-like with steep sloping sides and contain a liquid that attracts flies, ants and other insects. They use bright colors, smells, and nectar to entice the victim into a deadly trap.  Read more

Beautiful emeralds!

Emeralds are beautiful and mysterious and are used as the centre piece in many items of marvelous jewellery or to enhance and flatter other gemstones and precious metals.  

LesFacettes - CC BY-SA 3.0

Part of a glittering obsession

Emeralds are part of a glittering obsession modern day society has with gems and precious metals that can be fashioned into items to flatter and decorate and can be an abstract expression of value, status and importance.   Where do these wonderful gems come from and how are they valued?  

Emerald producing regions 

While many countries around the world produce emeralds, Columbia is regarded as the place where the most high quality emeralds are produced.  Here there are around 150 known deposits, though not all of them are currently in production. Read more

Amazing Easter Island still remains a mystery!

Mysterious Easter Island

 Easter Island is also known as Rapa Nui, but in the island legends it was originally called Te Pito Te Henua which means Navel of the World.

 

Ahu Nau Nau - Easter Island by

 TravelingOtter

 Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Generic license

Island traditions tell the story of how a priest named Hau-Maka had a dream that he had flown over the sea and discovered an uninhabited and unknown island.  He then appeared in a dream to a great chief called Hot Matu’a to tell him of his discovery.  Read more